Chapter 2

The popular mind draws little or no distinction between criminals. In it
there exists the idea of a criminal caste, all the members of which are
prepared to commit any and every act of a criminal nature. In the
popular mind, although it is just a question whether a man is bad enough
to commit the greater crimes, yet thieves, violators, swindlers, forgers
and murderers are all assumed to fall into the same category. In one
sense they do, that is, that they are all anti-social beings, or rather
they all possess certain anti-social qualities; but as soon as we
proceed further we find that there exists a very great distinction in
criminals. Criminals are first classified according to the motive of
their crime. This classication ranges them under five different
headings, the political criminal, the occasional criminal, the criminal
of passion, the instinctive criminal, and the habitual criminal or
recidivist.

Again they are classified, according to the nature of their crime, into
thieves, robbers, violators, assassins, murderers, swindlers, etc. These
again are sub-classified, e.g., thieves are classified as housebreakers,
those who rob with violence, those who use weapons, those who rob from
the person, and those who break safes. Murderers may also be classified
according to the nature of their murderous instinct, illustrated by the
instrument of destruction that they employ, whether it be the knife,
firearms, poisons or other means, and again a classification exists
between those who commit murder themselves and those who employ agents.
All these classifications are entirely different, and although some
criminals may range under more than one heading, yet it is generally the
case that a criminal adopts both a certain form of crime and also a
particular method for carrying it into execution.

=The Political Criminal.=--This man's offence is not against morality
but against the governmental institutions of the country. He holds
advanced ideas upon matters of government and upon the constitution of
society, and in his attempt to propagate these he becomes a political
criminal. The political criminal, as distinguished from all other
criminals, never commits violence, his morals may even approach
perfection; but he holds "ideas," ideas which are not acceptable to the
government under which he lives.

The despotic rule of the Oriental countries is most favourable to the
production of the political criminal: Russia and Germany are not without
their representatives. Occasionally bands of political criminals are
formed, and then, in the midst of demonstrations, unpremeditated
violence may be committed. The Stundists and the Young Turkish Party are
examples.

=The Occasional Criminal.=--"Economic conditions are generally
responsible for the production of the occasional criminal. His crime is
committed in order to satisfy his present wants. In him the sensual
instincts may not be stronger than usual, and the social element, though
weaker than usual, need not be absent. Weakness is the chief
characteristic of the occasional criminal. When circumstances are not
quite favourable he succumbs to temptation." (The Criminal, p. 18.) The
occasional criminal is clearly a subject for educational treatment. He
needs to cultivate greater power of self-control, to strengthen his
moral sense, and above all to be thoroughly equipped for the battle of
life. Imprisonment will frequently ruin him and be the cause of his
becoming a confirmed or habitual criminal.

=The Criminal of Passion.=--He is generally of considerable culture and
of keen moral sensibility. His crime proceeds from a sense of righteous
indignation which, for the moment, completely blinds him. Personal
insults cannot disturb his calm, but the sight of a child being abused
or a defenceless one being attacked, will so infuriate him that he may
even commit murder. Premeditation is never present, he acts under the
powerful inspiration of the moment, and his crime is an isolated event
quite unconnected with his conduct in general.

=The Insane Criminal=.--Insane persons who commit criminal acts, show
rather a variation of insanity than of criminality. It would be more
exact to describe them as "criminal lunatics" than as "insane
criminals." Two classes exist, a fact which is often overlooked, for
there are both criminal-lunatics and insane-criminals. In the first
case, criminality is the product of insanity, but in the second case
insanity is the product of criminality. Not an hereditary product in
either case, but a product resulting from a cause within the person's
mental or moral self.

The pronounced lunatic, the incapable, irresponsible person whose
actions are beyond his power to understand or control, is regarded by
society as a being too dangerous to be at large. Of him we do not here
speak to any extent, he is too well recognized. It should always be
borne in mind, however, that he commits crime because he is a lunatic,
and that although his confinement is absolutely necessary, yet there is
no warrant whatever that it should be made penal in character.

Although it is not possible in a work of this kind to deal largely with
the subject, the writer would urge upon the notice of society and upon
the special notice of jurists that there are a number of persons whose
crimes should excite for them the greatest sympathy instead of, as is
the case, the greatest detestation. Men there are who, perfectly sane in
the ordinarily accepted sense, and who have not only a clear conception
of the immorality of their conduct, but also an intense abhorrence and
shame for it, find themselves performing the most revolting acts under
influences that are absolutely irresistible. The sensualist has no
justification, but our laws are excessively cruel in their dealings with
this class to which allusion is made. To be brief, no man charged with
sadism (lust-murder) pederasty or the related crimes, should have his
case made public until a most complete diagnostic examination (including
his family and personal history) has been made by competent persons.

A careful study of Krafft-Ebing's monumental work upon the subject
should convince our lawyers that they could not proceed in these cases
without the assistance of the alienist and of those who are experts in
the diagnosis of the various forms of patho-sexualism. The cases of
insane criminals, that is, of the criminals whose vice is the cause of
their insanity, is also divisible into two classes. There is that
uninteresting class who on account of their irregular, immoral and
excitable life become insane, and there is another class. These latter
frequently escape the penalty of their crimes. Insanity is disclosed and
they have no criminal record, therefore they are discharged. It would be
a nice point to decide whether and to what degree, if any,
responsibility exists. To give an example not altogether uncommon--a man
who will not brook opposition or hindrance of any sort. On every such
occasion he cherishes most spiteful, even murderous, feelings towards
his opponent. He would do him any injury, even go to the length of
killing him, but he dare not.

He will storm, abuse and threaten, but he dare not go further. He is
avoided by his neighbours as being a most cantankerous fellow; he is
always being involved in disputes. This man is undoubtedly criminal at
heart and is cherishing anti-social feelings which are steadily growing
in their intensity. Revenge becomes the almost dominating influence over
his mind, but it is held in check by fear. At last fear gives way and
there is no further restriction to the emotion of revenge, which then
becomes supreme. At this climax insanity occurs and murder is committed
synchronically. Morally the act was committed years previously, and it
was by his own conduct in goading himself on to the climax that made it
an actual fact. Subsequently, almost immediately, he may become rational
again and retain consciousness of the deed and thoroughly understands
its outrageous nature. He will not then express any regrets but will
declare that his deed was perfectly moral. This man is as near a monster
as we dare call any man, and should never be allowed to have his liberty
restored to him.

=Instinctive Criminal.=--Called also the "born criminal" (Lombroso), or
the "criminal by nature." The term "instinctive criminal" seems to be
that growing most in popularity, possibly because there is less
likelihood of it having to be modified by the results of further
investigation.

By the instinctive criminal is understood a man in whom the criminal
instinct has gained a supremacy over the social instinct. He is not
only anti-social in deed but also in character. (It would be a mistake
to term him anti-social in nature, for that would indicate that he was
absolutely hostile to humanity. One, anti-social in character, is
capable of betterment, and this is possible of every man.) Many causes
operate to account for his production, some of them reaching far back
into his ancestry. When this is the case some physical handicap is
always present, such as e.g. cerebral irritation and epilepsy.

In childhood the instinctive criminal may be recognised by an excessive
vanity which will often tempt him to steal, the thefts being generally
confined to articles of personal adornment or which give an occasion to
"swagger." When accused he will deny the charge brought against him with
an effrontery which will too often create the conviction that he is
innocent. When charged he will challenge the statements of his superiors
without any hesitation whatever, but at a given moment will break down
and make a most free and perhaps disinterested confession. Frequently he
is very emotional in behavior and simulates the deepest regret, although
he is practically without any remorse whatever. He will undertake to
perform the most afflicting tasks of penance in order to expiate the
wrong and give every assurance for future good behaviour. Neither of
which is of the least value.

Onanism and a morbid love for sweets is an important characteristic. In
the adult, laziness, debauchery and cowardice are to be noticed. His
signature is peculiar, involved and often adorned with flourishes. He
loves to be credited with the performance of great achievements, and
will tatoo medals upon his body or other symbols significant of
greatness. The instinctive criminal generally complains that he is
unfortunate, or that he has never had a chance, and that society is
always contriving to keep him down.

=The Habitual Criminal, or the Recidivist.=--When once a man has fallen
into the clutches of the law and been incarcerated it is very difficult
for him to keep his self-respect. His first crime may present many
features to indicate that he is more the victim of circumstances than
well-defined ill-will. But having been convicted, he finds himself
shunned by all but criminal society, and together with other influences,
educational in character, he is frequently allured into a relapse. If a
prisoner endeavours to behave himself in gaol and keep aloof from evil
contagion, he is bullied by his fellow-prisoners, and even his keepers
regard him with suspicion. The one twit him with being a white-livered
coward, the other consider him to be either a sneak or a "deep fellow."
He is almost sure to fall and identify himself with the ranks of crime.
An instance that the writer has personal knowledge of is that of a man,
passionate in nature, and moved by the tears of a young woman on behalf
of her imprisoned lover, stuck up a small country gaol under arms and
gained the release of the imprisoned man. To escape the consequences he
had to take to the "bush," and for two years he lived the life of an
outlaw. He finally surrendered to the police and was condemned to death.
As no personal injury had been committed and his manner of using his
weapons shewed plainly that he did not contemplate any, his sentence was
commuted to imprisonment for fourteen years, the first three to be spent
in irons. At the end of that time the criminal habit was confirmed. For
various offences he was sentenced at different times to periods
aggregating in all to thirty years. After his last sentence had
expired--six years ago--he began a new life and has not committed crime
since. His whole career showed many redeeming points in it. This case is
well-known to the New Zealand and Australian prison authorities.

The number of criminals who are allured into relapse is computed by
Orano to be 45 per cent of the whole.

The distinction between the habitual criminal and the instinctive
criminal is not merely an academical one but emphatically a practical
one. Both are living the life of crime, and their acts may be, from an
objective point, of exactly the same nature; but in the one case we have
to deal with the criminal CHARACTER and in the other with the criminal
HABIT. The distinction is first seen in the different ages at which each
commences his criminal career; nextly in the different impelling causes.
Again, the emotions, ideas and methods show a distinction. All these
variations are in the aggregate of considerable practical importance,
especially in the assignment of prisoners for reformatory treatment.

* * * * *

THE CRIMINAL TYPE.

Prof. Lombroso writing the introduction to Dr Arthur's "Criminology"
says:--"This point as to the type, is scarcely recognized even by the
most respectable savants. The reasons for this are many: above all,
there are the criminals by occasion or by passion, who do not belong to
the type and should not, for in great part it is the circumstances, and
often the laws, which make them criminals and not Nature. And then some
have strange ideas concerning the type."

No doubt if the acceptation of the idea of type is carried out in its
complete universality, it cannot be accepted; but as I have already said
in my previous writings that it is necessary to receive this idea with
the same reserve which one appreciates averages in statistics.

When it is said that the average of life is 32 years, and that the month
least (? most) fatal to life, is December, no one understands by this
that all or almost all men should die at the age of 32 years and in the
month of December; but I am not the only one to make this restriction.
In order to show this I have to cite the definition which Monsieur
Topinard, himself the most inveterate of my adversaries, gives in his
remarkable work "The Type," says Gratiolet, "is a synthetic expression."
"The Type," says Goethe, is "the abstract and general image" which we
deduce from the observation of the common parts and from the
differences. "The type of a species," adds Isidorus St. Helaire, "never
appears before our eyes but is perceived only by the mind." "Human
types," writes Broca, "have no real existence, they are only abstract
conceptions, ideals, which come from the comparison of ethnic varieties,
and are composed of an ENSEMBLE of characters common to a
certain degree among themselves." I agree with these different points of
view. The type is indeed an ENSEMBLE of traits, but in relation
to a group which it characterises, it is also the ENSEMBLE of
its most prominent traits, and those repeating themselves, whence comes
a series of consequences which the anthropologist should never lose
sight of either in his laboratory or in the midst of the populations of
Central Africa." Manouvrier opposes Lombroso's theory and denies the
existence of the type. He argues that if it exist at all it must be
universal, whereas the peculiarities noted by Lombroso are present in
honest as well as in criminal persons, the latter having, however, the
greater proportion.

The doctrine of Fatalism seems at first sight to be bound up in the
acceptance of Lombroso's theory: but such is not the case. Lombroso
himself declares that the type belongs to the born criminal only, and
that the born criminal can be nothing more than an epileptic;
criminality being a neurosis. It would thus seem that the type was but
the indication of an organic defect which physically or psychically
rendered the subject unable to adapt himself to the social condition;
but not that unchangeable ideas, contradicting pure morality, were
innate. Lombroso goes no further than to state definitely that the type
exists, and that there are very clear indications that a different type
will be found to correspond with the different forms of criminality.
That the peculiarities are found also in persons living honest lives,
proves nothing against his theory. For instance, there are many persons
of distinctly criminal instincts who are kept in the paths of honesty
merely by circumstances; and again, scientific investigation has not yet
completed its work, and while certain typical peculiarities may be noted
in the criminal and in the non-criminal alike, it is more than likely
that the type will be found to consist in different combinations which
will be discovered to exist in the criminal (not necessarily, the
convict) exclusively. Or the type may consist in the peculiarities plus
expression. The following typical peculiarities have been noticed by
different criminologists:--

=The Cranium.=--The more frequent persistence of the metopic or frontal
suture. The effacement, more or less complete, of the parietal or
parieto-occipital sutures in a large number of criminals. The notched
sutures are the most simple. The frequency of the wormian bones in the
region of the median and in the lateral posterior frontal. The backward
direction of the plane of the occipital depression. (Dr A. Corre.)

Feeble cranial capacity; heavy and developed jaw; large orbital
capacity; projecting superciliary ridges; abnormal and assymetrical
cranium; the presence of a median occipital fossa. (Lombroso.)

=The Face.=--Scanty beard; abundant hair, prognathism, thick lips, dull
eye, lemurian appendix to the jaw, pteleriform type of the nasal
opening, projecting ears, squinting eyes, receding forehead and deformed
nose. "Those guilty of rape (if not cretins) almost always have a
projecting eye, delicate physiognomy, large lips and eyelids, the most
of them are slender, blond and rachitic. The pederast often has feminine
elegance, long and curly hair, and even in prison garb, a certain
feminine figure, delicate skin, childish look, and abundance of glossy
hair parted in the middle. Burglars who break into houses have as a rule
woolly hair, deformed cranium, powerful jaws, and enormous zygomatic
arches, are covered with scars on the head and trunk, and are often
tatooed. Habitual homicides have a glassy, cold, immobile, sometimes
sanguinary and dejected look; often an aquiline nose, or, in other
words, a hooked one like a bird of prey, always large; the jaws are
large, ears long, hair woolly, abundant and rich (dark); beard rare,
canine teeth, very large; the lips are thin. A large number of swindlers
and forgers have an artlessness, and something clerical in their manner,
which gives confidence to their victims. Some have a haggard look, very
small eyes, crooked nose, and the face of an old woman." (Dr MacDonald,
page 40.)

The following proverbs, collected by Lombroso, show the recognition in
the popular mind of the criminal type:--"There is nothing worse than a
scarcity of beard and no colour." "Pale face is either false or
treacherous." (Rome.) "A red-haired man and a bearded woman greet at a
distance." (Venice.) "Be thou suspicious of the woman with a man's
voice." "God preserve me from the man without a beard." (France.) "Pale
face is worse than the itch." (Piedmont.) "Bearded women and unbearded
men, salute at a distance." (Tuscan.) "Men of little beard of little
faith." "Wild look, cruel custom." "Be thou suspicious of him who
laughs, and beware of men with small twinkling eyes." (Tuscan.)

It must be remembered that while physiognomy gives valuable hints it is
by no means absolutely certain. Further investigation may add materially
to its value. It is also to be remembered that habits play an important
part in the physiognomy. So much so is this true that it has been said
of the reformed criminals from Elmira, that their faces have changed.